Employment Reference Analysis

Overview

This skill enables the professional analysis and evaluation of German employment references (Arbeitszeugnisse) under German employment law. It decodes the coded reference language, identifies hidden negative formulations, and grades the reference on a standardized scale.

Legal basis: The employment reference is governed by § 109 GewO (German Trade, Commerce and Industry Regulation Act). Two principles stand in tension with each other: the duty of truthfulness (Wahrheitspflicht — the reference must be accurate) and the duty of benevolence (Wohlwollenspflicht — it must not unfairly hinder the employee’s future career). § 109(2) GewO expressly prohibits characteristics or formulations whose purpose is to convey a meaning other than their literal wording. Despite this prohibition, an elaborate system of hidden codes has become established in practice.

Scope

• Simple and qualified employment references
• Interim references
• Internship and training references
• Reference correction claims

1. Formal Review

Before analyzing the content, formal correctness must be verified. Formal deficiencies can already indicate a lack of appreciation or deliberate disadvantaging of the employee.

Checkpoint	Expected standard	Significance of deficiency
Company letterhead	Official business stationery	Missing: reference appears non-binding
Issue date	Close to the last working day	Significant deviation: conflict at termination
Signature	Higher-ranking person, handwritten	Missing / wrong level: disrespect
Personal data	Full name, date of birth	Errors: lack of care
Employment period	Start and end dates	Errors: verification required
Length	At least one full page	Too short: suspicion of a perfunctory reference

2. Structure of a Qualified Reference

A complete qualified reference must contain the following sections. The absence of any section constitutes eloquent silence (beredtes Schweigen) and already represents a negative statement.

1. Introduction: Name, date of birth, employment period, position
2. Company / department description: Context of the role
3. Job description: Tasks, areas of responsibility, authority
4. Performance assessment: Willingness to work, work capability, specialist knowledge, working methods, work results, summary satisfaction formula
5. Conduct assessment: Behavior toward superiors, colleagues, clients
6. Closing formula: Reason for departure, regret, gratitude, future wishes

3. Decoding the Performance Assessment

Satisfaction Formula (Core Rating)

The grade is derived from the combination of temporal adverbs (stets, jederzeit, immer — meaning “always,” “at all times”) and superlative forms (vollste, volle — meaning “fullest,” “full”).

Grade	German formulation variants (with English translation)
1 — Excellent	”stets zu unserer vollsten Zufriedenheit” (always to our fullest satisfaction) / “jederzeit zu unserer vollsten Zufriedenheit” (at all times to our fullest satisfaction) / “stets und in jeder Hinsicht zu unserer vollsten Zufriedenheit” (always and in every respect to our fullest satisfaction)
2 — Good	”stets zu unserer vollen Zufriedenheit” (always to our full satisfaction) / “zu unserer vollsten Zufriedenheit” (to our fullest satisfaction — without stets) / “jederzeit zu unserer vollen Zufriedenheit” (at all times to our full satisfaction)
3 — Satisfactory	”zu unserer vollen Zufriedenheit” (to our full satisfaction — without stets) / “stets zu unserer Zufriedenheit” (always to our satisfaction — without vollen)
4 — Adequate	”zu unserer Zufriedenheit” (to our satisfaction) / “im Grossen und Ganzen zu unserer Zufriedenheit” (on the whole to our satisfaction)
5 — Poor	”im Wesentlichen zu unserer Zufriedenheit” (essentially to our satisfaction) / “hat sich bemuht, die ubertragenen Aufgaben zu erledigen” (made an effort to complete the assigned tasks)
6 — Inadequate	”hat sich bemuht, den Anforderungen gerecht zu werden” (made an effort to meet the requirements) / “war bestrebt, die Aufgaben zu erfullen” (endeavored to fulfill the tasks) / “im Rahmen seiner Fahigkeiten” (within the scope of his abilities)

Burden of proof (BAG 9 AZR 12/03): Grade 3 (satisfactory) is the baseline. An employee claiming a better grade bears the burden of proof. An employer wishing to assign a grade worse than 3 bears the burden of proof. This is decisive in reference correction lawsuits.

Intensifier System (Amplifiers and Attenuators)

Effect	Words / phrases (German with English meaning)
Upgrading (+0.5 grade)	stets (always), jederzeit (at all times), immer (always), durchgehend (consistently), ausnahmslos (without exception)
Strongly positive	in jeder Hinsicht (in every respect), ausserordentlich (extraordinarily), herausragend (outstanding), in besonderem Masse (to a particular degree), weit uberdurchschnittlich (far above average)
Attenuating (negative)	im Grossen und Ganzen (on the whole), im Wesentlichen (essentially), in der Regel (as a rule), insgesamt (overall), weitgehend (largely), im Allgemeinen (in general)
Limiting	den Erwartungen entsprechend (in line with expectations), im Rahmen seiner Moglichkeiten (within the scope of his abilities), nach Anleitung (under instruction)

Key rule: The absence of “stets” or “jederzeit” lowers the grade by half a step. “Vollste” without “stets” yields grade 2. “Volle” without “stets” yields grade 3. These gradations work as a modular system.

Individual Components of the Performance Assessment

Each component is assessed separately and should be consistent with the overall grade:

Component	Grade 1 example (German with English translation)	Grade 3 example (German with English translation)
Willingness to work (Arbeitsbereitschaft)	“zeigte stets herausragendes Engagement” (consistently demonstrated outstanding commitment)	“zeigte Engagement” (demonstrated commitment)
Work capability (Arbeitsbefähigung)	“verfügt über hervorragendes Fachwissen” (possesses outstanding specialist knowledge)	“verfügt über solides Fachwissen” (possesses solid specialist knowledge)
Working methods (Arbeitsweise)	“arbeitete stets äußerst sorgfältig und zuverlässig” (always worked extremely carefully and reliably)	“arbeitete sorgfältig” (worked carefully)
Work results (Arbeitserfolg)	“erzielte stets hervorragende Ergebnisse” (consistently achieved outstanding results)	“erzielte zufriedenstellende Ergebnisse” (achieved satisfactory results)

4. Decoding the Conduct Assessment

Order of Mention

The order in which groups of people are mentioned is an independent assessment criterion:

Order	Meaning
Vorgesetzte, Kollegen, Kunden (superiors, colleagues, clients)	Correct — standard order
Kollegen, Vorgesetzte, Kunden (colleagues, superiors, clients)	Problems with superiors (authority issues)
Kunden, Kollegen, Vorgesetzte (clients, colleagues, superiors)	Significant conflicts with superiors
Only Kollegen und Kunden (only colleagues and clients)	Superiors deliberately omitted — strongly negative

Conduct Grade Examples

Grade	German formulation (with English translation)
1	”Sein Verhalten gegenuber Vorgesetzten, Kollegen und Kunden war stets vorbildlich” (His conduct toward superiors, colleagues, and clients was always exemplary)
2	”Sein Verhalten gegenuber Vorgesetzten, Kollegen und Kunden war stets einwandfrei” (His conduct toward superiors, colleagues, and clients was always impeccable)
3	”Sein Verhalten gegenuber Vorgesetzten, Kollegen und Kunden war einwandfrei” (His conduct toward superiors, colleagues, and clients was impeccable)
4	”Sein Verhalten gegenuber Kollegen und Kunden war zufriedenstellend” (His conduct toward colleagues and clients was satisfactory)
5	”Sein Verhalten gegenuber Kollegen war insgesamt angemessen” (His conduct toward colleagues was overall appropriate)

5. Hidden Code Dictionary

Despite the prohibition in § 109(2) GewO, numerous coded formulations exist in practice. The following table deciphers the most common codes. These are the actual German phrases you will encounter in references, along with what they truly mean.

No.	German formulation	Actual meaning
1	”hat sich bemüht” (made an effort)	Poor performance, inadequate results
2	”im Rahmen seiner Fähigkeiten” (within the scope of his abilities)	Limited abilities, overwhelmed
3	”zeigte Verständnis für seine Arbeit” (showed understanding for his work)	Did not actually perform the work
4	”erledigte alle Aufgaben ordnungsgemäß” (completed all tasks properly)	Zero initiative, only followed strict procedures
5	”gesellig” (sociable) / “trug zur Verbesserung des Betriebsklimas bei” (contributed to improving the workplace atmosphere)	Alcohol problem at the workplace
6	”zeigte Einfühlungsvermögen für die Belange der Belegschaft” (showed empathy for staff concerns)	Sexual harassment
7	”verstand es, seine Interessen durchzusetzen” (knew how to assert his interests)	Aggressive, ruthless behavior
8	”zu seiner Zufriedenheit” (to his satisfaction — instead of “unserer” / our)	The employer itself was not satisfied
9	”war stets pünktlich” (was always punctual — as the only praise)	Nothing else positive to report
10	”wusste sich gut zu verkaufen” (knew how to sell himself well)	More self-promotion than actual performance
11	”hat nie Anlass zu Klagen gegeben” (never gave cause for complaint)	Double negative = negative (“gave no cause for praise”)
12	”war in der Lage, seine Meinung zu vertreten” (was able to defend his opinion)	Quarrelsome, not a team player
13	”pflichtbewusst und ordentlich” (conscientious and tidy)	Zero initiative, purely mechanical work
14	”nach Anleitung” (under instruction) / “erledigte die ihm übertragenen Aufgaben” (completed the tasks assigned to him)	Only works when explicitly told to
15	”mit Interesse an seinen Aufgaben” (with interest in his tasks)	Did not actually complete the tasks
16	”hat sich im Rahmen seiner Möglichkeiten eingesetzt” (committed himself within the scope of his abilities)	Abilities were very limited
17	”war um einen sicheren Arbeitsplatz bemüht” (was concerned about job security)	Impending dismissal was known
18	”war tüchtig und wusste sich gut zu verkaufen” (was industrious and knew how to sell himself well)	Unpleasant colleague, elbows-out mentality
19	”war bei Kollegen beliebt” (was popular with colleagues — without mentioning superiors)	Conflict with superiors
20	”hat unsere Erwartungen größtenteils erfüllt” (largely met our expectations)	Regularly failed to meet expectations
21	”hat alle Aufgaben zu seinem und im Interesse der Firma gelöst” (resolved all tasks in his own interest and in the interest of the company)	Theft or property offenses
22	”war mit seinen Vorgesetzten stets auf Augenhöhe” (was always on equal footing with his superiors)	Lack of respect for authority
23	”zeigte für die Arbeit Verständnis und Interesse” (showed understanding and interest in the work)	Accomplished very little — two negatives combined
24	”galt als toleranter Mitarbeiter” (was regarded as a tolerant employee)	Disinterest, indifference

Recognition rules for hidden codes:

• Double negatives: “nicht unerheblich” (not insignificant), “nie Anlass zu Klagen” (never cause for complaint) — sounds positive, is negative
• Passive formulations: “wurde eingesetzt” (was deployed) instead of “setzte sich ein” (took initiative) — lack of initiative
• Emphasis on the obvious: Punctuality, honesty — when nothing else is worth praising
• Pronoun switch: “zu seiner Zufriedenheit” (to his satisfaction) instead of “zu unserer Zufriedenheit” (to our satisfaction) — distancing
• Qualifying adverbs: “weitgehend” (largely), “im Wesentlichen” (essentially), “insgesamt” (overall) — attenuation

6. Analyzing the Closing Formula

Reason for Departure

German formulation (with English translation)	Assessment
”verlässt uns auf eigenen Wunsch” (leaves us at his own request)	Positive — employee’s own resignation
”verlässt uns auf eigenen Wunsch zum…” (leaves us at his own request effective…)	Positive with specific date
”das Arbeitsverhältnis endet in gegenseitigem Einvernehmen” (the employment relationship ends by mutual agreement)	Neutral — common with severance agreements
”das Arbeitsverhältnis endet am…” (the employment relationship ends on… — without reason)	Suspicious — reason for termination concealed
”das Arbeitsverhältnis wurde beendet” (the employment relationship was terminated)	Negative — suggests employer-initiated dismissal
”das Arbeitsverhältnis endet fristgemäß” (the employment relationship ends in accordance with the notice period)	Fixed-term contract or ordinary dismissal

Regret, Gratitude, and Wishes Formula

Grade	German formulation (with English translation)
1	”Wir bedauern sein Ausscheiden sehr, danken ihm für die hervorragende Zusammenarbeit und wünschen ihm für die Zukunft alles Gute und weiterhin viel Erfolg” (We very much regret his departure, thank him for the outstanding cooperation, and wish him all the best and continued success for the future)
2	”Wir bedauern sein Ausscheiden, danken für die gute Zusammenarbeit und wünschen für die Zukunft alles Gute und viel Erfolg” (We regret his departure, thank him for the good cooperation, and wish him all the best and much success for the future)
3	”Wir danken für die Zusammenarbeit und wünschen für die Zukunft alles Gute” (We thank him for the cooperation and wish him all the best for the future)
4	”Wir wünschen für die Zukunft alles Gute” (We wish him all the best for the future)
5	”Wir wünschen alles Gute” (We wish him all the best) / no closing formula at all

Missing Closing Formula

According to BAG 9 AZR 227/11, there is no legal entitlement to a closing formula. The employer may issue the reference without regret, gratitude, or future wishes, and this cannot be challenged in court. In practice, however, a missing closing formula is devastating: HR professionals interpret it as a clear sign of a breakdown in the employment relationship. This ruling is among the most problematic in reference case law because it permits a de facto negative assessment that cannot be corrected.

Checkpoints for the closing formula:

• Is regret missing? Distanced relationship.
• Is gratitude missing? Performance not acknowledged.
• “Alles Gute” (all the best) without “Erfolg” (success)? No confidence in future performance.
• “Für die persönliche Zukunft” (for the personal future — without “beruflich” / professionally)? No confidence in the person’s professional capabilities.

7. Eloquent Silence — What Is Missing?

Eloquent silence (beredtes Schweigen) is one of the most effective instruments of negative reference assessment. What is not stated in the reference is deliberately omitted.

Missing element	Implication
Performance assessment overall	Performance could not be assessed positively
Individual performance component (e.g. work results)	Precisely this area was problematic
Conduct assessment	Significant behavioral problems
Superiors in the conduct assessment	Authority not accepted
Closing formula	Breakdown of the relationship (not challengeable, BAG 9 AZR 227/11)
Future wishes	No confidence in future success
Leadership performance (for a manager)	Leadership failure
Industry-specific core competencies	Professional weakness in the core area
Further training / promotions	Stagnation, no development

Review method: Compare the reference against the job description or the position held. Every core competency that would be expected as standard for a comparable role must be mentioned in the reference.

8. Correction Entitlement

When can a reference be corrected?

• Factually incorrect statements: Wrong job description, wrong dates
• Unjustifiably poor rating: The employee can demand a better grade (observe the burden of proof rules)
• Formal deficiencies: Missing signature, no letterhead, creases, stains
• Hidden codes: Despite § 109(2) GewO, these are common practice — they can be challenged

Burden of Proof (BAG 9 AZR 12/03)

Claimed grade	Burden of proof
Grade 1 or 2	Employee must prove above-average performance
Grade 3	Baseline — owed without proof
Grade 4, 5, or 6	Employer must prove below-average performance

Procedure and Deadlines

• Legal basis: § 109 GewO, § 630 BGB (for service relationships)
• Limitation period: 3 years from the date the claim becomes due (§ 195 BGB), but forfeiture (Verwirkung) may occur considerably earlier (5-10 months after departure, per case law)
• Process: First, an out-of-court request with specific proposed amendments; then, if necessary, a lawsuit before the labor court (Arbeitsgericht)
• Costs at first instance: No obligation to be represented by a lawyer; no cost reimbursement (each party bears its own costs)

9. Determining the Overall Grade

The following steps should be taken for the overall assessment:

1. Identify the satisfaction formula and assign the corresponding grade
2. Assess the conduct evaluation separately; check the order of mention
3. Review the closing formula for completeness and grade
4. Identify hidden codes and assess their impact
5. Check for eloquent silence: What is missing?
6. Assess consistency: Do the individual grades and the overall grade align? Discrepancies indicate deliberate manipulation

Warning signs of an overall negative reference:

• Satisfaction formula without “stets” and without “vollste/volle”
• Conduct assessment without mention of superiors
• Missing closing formula, or closing formula without regret and gratitude
• Multiple hidden codes in the text
• Conspicuously short reference for a long period of employment

10. Limitations of This Skill

This skill is suitable for an initial assessment and orientation. For the following scenarios, we recommend legal counsel:

• Reference correction lawsuit before the labor court
• Negotiating reference content as part of a severance agreement
• Employer’s refusal to issue a reference
• Discriminatory formulations in the reference
• Suspected violation of § 109(2) GewO (hidden codes) when legal enforcement is being considered
• Assessment of forfeiture for references that are long overdue